Victimology in the 21st Century: A Global Examination of Victimization, Support Systems, and Public Perception
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.65339/ijsair.V2.I2.454Keywords:
Victimology, Cultural Victimology, Cyber Victimization, Low-Resource Support, Victim Perception.Abstract
This scoping review examines the evolving field of victimology in the 21st century, emphasizing the global variations in victim perception, support systems, and the impact of technology. The review is driven by three main objectives: to explore the cultural dimensions of victimhood and public perception across different global settings; to assess the barriers to effective victim support in resource-poor environments; and to analyze the dual role of technology as both a driver of victimization and a tool for recovery. This research is aligned with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5, which aims to eliminate violence against women, and Goal 16, which focuses on ensuring equal access to justice for all. By reviewing recent literature, the study reveals that "victimization" is often deeply influenced by cultural factors, with societal norms shaping the legitimacy of harm. In countries with limited resources, Western support models often fail due to a lack of local adaptation and infrastructure. Additionally, the growing prevalence of digital technologies has led to the emergence of "cyber-victimology," where technology-facilitated abuse is widespread, yet survivors are frequently blamed for not adequately protecting themselves online. The findings suggest that achieving global justice necessitates a shift toward "cultural victimology" and the incorporation of local perspectives in policy-making. By focusing on context-appropriate interventions and challenging rigid "ideal victim" stereotypes, the international community can more effectively address the goals set out in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
References
Acquaviva, B. L., & Gullion, C. L. (2024). A Qualitative Analysis of Victims’ Perceptions of Procedural Justice for Sexual Victimization. Violence Against Women, 31(14), 3632. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778012241283493
Ahlin, E. M., & Antunes, M. J. L. (2025). Theoretical Approaches in Victimology Research. Victims & Offenders, 20, 795. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2025.2518297
Alberton, A. M., Hertzog, J., & Bila, A. V. (2025). Insights on Intimate Partner Violence Service Provision, Access, and Utilization During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Scoping Review [Review of Insights on Intimate Partner Violence Service Provision, Access, and Utilization During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Scoping Review]. Journal of Family Violence. Springer Science+Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-025-00973-3
Bailey, J., Henry, N., & Flynn, A. (2021). Technology-Facilitated Violence and Abuse: International Perspectives and Experiences. In Emerald Publishing Limited eBooks (p. 1). https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-83982-848-520211001
Bussu, A., Pulina, M., Ashton, S., Mangiarulo, M., & Molloy, E. (2024). Cyberbullying and cyberstalking victimisation among university students: A narrative systematic review. International Review of Victimology, 31(1), 59. https://doi.org/10.1177/02697580241257217
Campbell, K., Ford‐Gilboe, M., Stanley, M., & MacKinnon, K. (2022). Intimate partner violence and women living with episodic disabilities: a scoping review protocol [Review of Intimate partner violence and women living with episodic disabilities: a scoping review protocol]. Systematic Reviews, 11(1). BioMed Central. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-022-01972-x
Carlisle, S., Bunce, A., Prina, M., Cook, E. A., Barbosa, E. C., McManus, S., Feder, G., & Lewis, N. (2023). Trends in outcomes used to measure the effectiveness of UK-based support interventions and services targeted at adults with experience of domestic and sexual violence and abuse: A scoping review. Research Square (Research Square). https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2858743/v1
Carlisle, S., Bunce, A., Prina, M., McManus, S., Barbosa, E. C., Feder, G., & Lewis, N. (2025). Effectiveness of UK-based support interventions and services aimed at adults who have experienced or used domestic and sexual violence and abuse: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health, 25(1), 1003. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-21891-5
Domingo-Cabarrubias, L., Woodlock, D., Alexander, C. S., Sato, M., Grant, G., & Weinberg, J. (2022). The Role of Technology in Improving Access to Justice for Victims of Family Violence: Challenges and Opportunities. Law Technology and Humans. https://doi.org/10.5204/lthj.2469
Fattah, E. A. (2002). Victimology: Past, Present and Future. Criminologie, 33(1), 17. https://doi.org/10.7202/004720ar
Gillespie, L. K., Richards, T. N., & Whitehouse, E. (2025). Remote and Hybrid Work in Crime Victim Services: A Scoping Review. Trauma Violence & Abuse. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380251397414
Hall, M. (2017). Exploring the cultural dimensions of environmental victimization. Palgrave Communications, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.1057/palcomms.2017.76
Hall, M., Debowska, A., & Hales, G. K. (2023). The Effect of Victim Attractiveness and Type of Abuse Suffered on Attributions of Victim Blame and Credibility in Intimate Partner Violence: A Vignette-Based Online Experiment. Violence Against Women, 30(9), 2396. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778012221150272
Holder, R., Elbers, N. A., & Antonsdóttir, H. F. (2024). Guest Editors’ Introduction: Europe as a Comparative Site on Victim Participation in Criminal Justice. International Criminology, 4(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43576-024-00120-w
Idriss-Wheeler, D., Bancroft, X., Bouraleh, S. M., Buy, M., Yaya, S., & El‐Khatib, Z. (2024). Exploring access to health and social supports for intimate partner violence (IPV) survivors during stressful life events (SLEs)—A scoping review. PLoS ONE, 19(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313613
Jaishankar, K. (2020). Cyber Victimology: A New Sub-Discipline of the Twenty-First Century Victimology (p. 3). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41622-5_1
Jolof, L., Rocca, P., & Carlsson, T. (2024). Support interventions to promote health and wellbeing among women with health-related consequences following traumatic experiences linked to armed conflicts and forced migration: a scoping review [Review of Support interventions to promote health and wellbeing among women with health-related consequences following traumatic experiences linked to armed conflicts and forced migration: a scoping review]. Archives of Public Health, 82(1). BioMed Central. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-023-01235-8
Kaifa, U., Yaseen, Z., & Muzaffar, M. (2025). A Thematic Analysis of Pakistan’s Cybersecurity Policies, Regulations and Implications.
Keesbury, J., & Askew, I. (2010). Comprehensive responses to gender-based violence in low-resource settings: Lessons learned from implementation. https://doi.org/10.31899/rh2.1066
Kennedy, K., MacLeod, E., Lee, J., Treige, C., Jones, R., Narang, R., & Gunn, V. (2025). Identifying barriers and facilitators to reporting and disclosing sexual violence (SV) for undergraduate students in Canadian and American universities: a scoping review protocol [Review of Identifying barriers and facilitators to reporting and disclosing sexual violence (SV) for undergraduate students in Canadian and American universities: a scoping review protocol]. Systematic Reviews, 14(1). BioMed Central. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-025-02942-9
Kirk, L., Terry, S., Lokuge, K., & Watterson, J. (2017). Effectiveness of secondary and tertiary prevention for violence against women in low and low-middle income countries: a systematic review [Review of Effectiveness of secondary and tertiary prevention for violence against women in low and low-middle income countries: a systematic review]. BMC Public Health, 17(1). BioMed Central. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4502-6
Koss, M. P., White, J. W., & Lopez, E. (2017). Victim voice in reenvisioning responses to sexual and physical violence nationally and internationally. American Psychologist, 72(9), 1019. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000233
Kuhlmann, A., & Kury, H. (2018). Some Considerations of Restorative Justice Before and Outside of Contemporary Western States. Kriminologijos Studijos, 5, 5. https://doi.org/10.15388/crimlithuan.2017.5.11731
Kuupiel, D., Lateef, A., Pillay, J. D., & Mchunu, G. (2023). Mapping global evidence on injuries/trauma due to sexual and gender-based violence for research prioritisation and development of guidelines to mitigate their impact: a scoping review protocol [Review of Mapping global evidence on injuries/trauma due to sexual and gender-based violence for research prioritisation and development of guidelines to mitigate their impact: a scoping review protocol]. Systematic Reviews, 12(1). BioMed Central. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-023-02345-8
Levac, D., Colquhoun, H., & O’Brien, K. K. (2010). Scoping studies: advancing the methodology. Implementation Science, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-5-69
Louie, Y. M. (2021). Technology-Facilitated Domestic Abuse and Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Women in Victoria, Australia. In Emerald Publishing Limited eBooks (p. 447). https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-83982-848-520211033
Marcum, C. D., & Higgins, G. E. (2021). A Systematic Review of Cyberstalking Victimization and Offending Behaviors [Review of A Systematic Review of Cyberstalking Victimization and Offending Behaviors]. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 46(6), 882. Springer Science+Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-021-09653-6
Marganski, A., & Melander, L. A. (2021). Technology-Facilitated Violence Against Women and Girls in Public and Private Spheres: Moving from Enemy to Ally. In Emerald Publishing Limited eBooks (p. 623). https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-83982-848-520211046
Moon, J., & Lee, D. (2022). Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 22(3). https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2022.03080
Murdoch, A., & Gonsalkorale, K. (2017). Attributions of Blame in Acquaintance Rape Scenarios: The Role of Blame Scale Presentation Order. Psychiatry Psychology and Law, 24(6), 853. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2017.1315787
Mythen, G. (2012). Cultural victimology: are we all victims now? In Willan eBooks (p. 480). https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203118207-28
N.S., S., & Kanthimathinathan. (2025). Understanding UPI Payment Adoption Among Rural Women: Insights from the Technology Acceptance Model. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5081230
Olson, R. M., Garcia‐Moreno, C., & Colombini, M. (2020). The implementation and effectiveness of the one stop centre model for intimate partner and sexual violence in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review of barriers and enablers [Review of The implementation and effectiveness of the one stop centre model for intimate partner and sexual violence in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review of barriers and enablers]. BMJ Global Health, 5(3). BMJ. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2019-001883
Peacock, R. (2021). Crime and victimisation in the era of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. E3S Web of Conferences, 317, 1001. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202131701001
Procter‐Legg, T., Hobson, J., & Quimby, E. (2024). Restorative justice and social justice: an international perspective. Contemporary Justice Review, 27, 218. https://doi.org/10.1080/10282580.2024.2414953
Rockowitz, S., Flowe, H. D., & Bradbury‐Jones, C. (2021). Post-rape medicolegal service provision and policy in East Africa: a scoping review protocol [Review of Post-rape medicolegal service provision and policy in East Africa: a scoping review protocol]. Systematic Reviews, 10(1). BioMed Central. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-021-01613-9
Rockowitz, S., Flowe, H. D., & Bradbury‐Jones, C. (2022). A Scoping Review on Sexual and Gender-Based Violence Medicolegal Service Provision in East Africa [Review of A Scoping Review on Sexual and Gender-Based Violence Medicolegal Service Provision in East Africa]. Trauma Violence & Abuse, 24(5), 3579. SAGE Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380221134292
Rogers, M., Fisher, C., Ali, P., Allmark, P., & Fontes, L. A. (2022). Technology-Facilitated Abuse in Intimate Relationships: A Scoping Review [Review of Technology-Facilitated Abuse in Intimate Relationships: A Scoping Review]. Trauma Violence & Abuse, 24(4), 2210. SAGE Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380221090218
Rose, J., & Tran, D. (2024). Understandings of Vulnerability and Social Determinants of Health in Forensic and Expert Social Anthropology: A Scoping Review [Review of Understandings of Vulnerability and Social Determinants of Health in Forensic and Expert Social Anthropology: A Scoping Review]. The Qualitative Report. Nova Southeastern University. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2024.6704
Sawah, E., Kielmann, K., & Michielsen, J. (2025). Barriers and enablers towards integrated care for survivors of sexual violence in humanitarian settings: A real-time qualitative Delphi study. Global Public Health, 20(1), 2460016. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2025.2460016
Schoellkopf, J. C. (2012). Victim-Blaming: A New Term for an Old Trend. DigitalCommons @ The University of Rhode Island (The University of Rhode Island). https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/glbtc/33
Semenza, D. C., Testa, A., & Jackson, D. B. (2022). Intersectional differences in serious violent victimization trajectories across the life course. Preventive Medicine Reports, 26, 101732. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2022.101732
Šupa, M. (2021). Social Research about Online Crime: Global Range of Topics and a Systematic Analysis of Research in Lithuania. Kriminologijos Studijos, 9, 8. https://doi.org/10.15388/crimlithuan.2021.9.1
Todić, J., Christensen, M. C., & McMahon, S. M. (2021). Restorative and Transformative Justice Responses to Sexual Violence. Social Science Protocols, 4, 1. https://doi.org/10.7565/ssp.v4.5231
Weekes, C. J., Storey, J. E., & Pina, A. (2025). Cyberstalking Perpetrators and Their Methods: A Systematic Literature Review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380251333411
Weldearegay, H. G., Gebretnsae, H., Mackey, A., Bigalky, J., & Petrucka, P. (2025). Understanding nature, barriers, and facilitators in addressing sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) in conflict zones of Africa: A scoping review [Review of Understanding nature, barriers, and facilitators in addressing sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) in conflict zones of Africa: A scoping review]. BMC Public Health, 25(1). BioMed Central. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-24645-5
Whiting, J. B., Olufowote, R. A. D., Cravens-Pickens, J., & Witting, A. B. (2019). Online Blaming and Intimate Partner Violence: A Content Analysis of Social Media Comments. The Qualitative Report. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2019.3486
Zamora, C. L., Boddy, J., O’Leary, P., & Liang, J. (2022). Technology-Facilitated Abuse Against Women From Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Backgrounds: A Scoping Review of the Literature [Review of Technology-Facilitated Abuse Against Women From Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Backgrounds: A Scoping Review of the Literature]. Trauma Violence & Abuse, 24(4), 2530. SAGE Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380221098045
