Determinants of Reading Difficulties Among Grade 7 Students at San Pascual National High School: Basis for an Intervention Program
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.65339/ijsair.V2.I2.275Keywords:
Affective Response to Reading, Learner Background, Learner Environment, Phonemic Awareness, Reading Comprehension, Reading Difficulties, Reading Fluency, Vocabulary KnowledgeAbstract
This study examined the determinants of reading difficulties among Grade 7 students at San Pascual National High School as a basis for an intervention program. Anchored on Schema Theory, Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory, and the Simple View of Reading, the study explored how learner background and environment influence reading performance. A quantitative descriptive–correlational research design was employed involving 36 Grade 7 non-reader students selected through purposive sampling. Data were collected using a validated researcher-made questionnaire and analyzed using frequency, percentage, weighted mean, and Pearson r correlation. Findings revealed that learners generally demonstrated positive interest and motivation toward reading but exhibited limited prior knowledge and reading experiences. The school environment was found to be supportive, particularly through teacher guidance and availability of materials, while the home environment showed minimal support due to limited parental involvement and reading practices. Learners experienced significant difficulties in phonemic awareness, vocabulary knowledge, reading fluency, reading comprehension, and affective response, with vocabulary and comprehension identified as the most challenging areas. The study further revealed a strong and statistically significant relationship between learners’ background and reading difficulties (r = 0.68, p < 0.05) and between learners’ environment and reading difficulties (r = 0.76, p < 0.05). These findings indicate that both individual and contextual factors significantly influence reading performance. The study recommends targeted intervention programs focusing on reading skills development, enhancement of prior knowledge, and strengthened collaboration between schools and parents. This study aligns with SDG 4 (Quality Education) by addressing literacy challenges and improving learning outcomes, and SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities) by highlighting socio-economic disparities in reading performance. It contributes to educational and socio-economic sustainability by supporting evidence-based literacy interventions and promoting inclusive learning environments.
References
American Psychological Association. (2020). Stress and academic performance among students.
Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., Sorensen, C., & Razavieh, A. (2019). Introduction to research in education (10th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Asian Development Bank. (2021). Education and skills development in Asia and the Pacific.
Barrot, J. S. (2021). Reading comprehension difficulties of secondary students. 3L: Language, Linguistics, Literature, 27(2), 1–15.
Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge University Press.
Bernardo, A. B. I. (2020). Socioeconomic status and literacy development in Filipino learners. Philippine Journal of Psychology, 53(2), 123–145.
Carroll, J. M., Pennington, B. F., & Olson, R. K. (2025). Reading comprehension resiliency in adolescents: Vocabulary, listening comprehension and socioeconomic status. Journal of Research in Reading, 47(1).
Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2020). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 21(1), 5–51.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.
Danganan, R. B., & Laguador, J. M. (2021). Reading motivation and academic performance of junior high school students. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Arts and Sciences, 8(2), 45–52.
Darling-Hammond, L., Flook, L., Cook-Harvey, C., Barron, B., & Osher, D. (2020). Implications for educational practice of the science of learning and development. Applied Developmental Science, 24(2), 97–140.
Deleña, L. M. P. (2025). Reading behavior level and difficulties encountered by Grade 7 students. International Journal of Science Academic Research, 6(02), 9304–9315.
Department of Education. (2021). Early language, literacy, and numeracy (ELLN) digital program report. DepEd Philippines.
Department of Education. (2023). National achievement test results and ELLN assessment report. DepEd Philippines.
Duke, N. K., & Cartwright, K. B. (2021). The science of reading progress: Communicating advances beyond the simple view of reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 56(S1), S25–S44.
Dulay, H., & Abadiano, M. (2022). Vocabulary development and reading comprehension of Filipino learners. Philippine ESL Journal, 28, 67–85.
Education Endowment Foundation. (2021). Improving literacy in secondary schools.
Enomar, R. R., & Ferenal, E. S. (2025). Factors affecting reading comprehension and learners’ performance in select districts. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Analysis, 8(07).
Famoso, E. J. M., Lachica, R. L., & Bautista, M. A. (2025). Factors affecting the learners’ reading comprehension skills. International Journal of Educational Research and Innovation, 2(6), 423–431.
Figuerres, J. (2025). Reading performance and difficulties of grade 7 learners: Basis for strategic intervention. International Journal of Research Studies in Education, 14(8), 89–97.
Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6–10.
Grills-Taquechel, A. E., Fletcher, J. M., Vaughn, S., Denton, C. A., & Taylor, W. P. (2021). Anxiety and reading difficulties: Evidence for a bidirectional relation. Child Development, 92(1), e1–e18.
Guthrie, J. T., Klauda, S. L., & Ho, A. N. (2020). Modeling the relationships among reading instruction, motivation, engagement, and achievement. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(1), 9–29.
International Literacy Association. (2020). The role of background knowledge in reading comprehension.
International Literacy Association. (2021). Vocabulary development and reading comprehension.
Kadusale, J. C., & Tepacia, H. C. (2025). Factors influencing the reading comprehension of learners. GEO Academic Journal, 6(1).
Kim, Y.-S. G. (2020). Hierarchical relations among language and cognitive skills and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(1), 1–16.
Kim, Y.-S. G. (2021). Direct and indirect effects of language and cognitive skills on reading comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 25(6), 475–496.
Kuhn, M. R., Schwanenflugel, P. J., & Meisinger, E. B. (2021). Aligning theory and assessment of reading fluency. Reading Research Quarterly, 56(S1), S1–S17.
Maglunob, M. T., & Tabernilla, M. C. L. M. (2023). Factors influencing reading comprehension and difficulties among intermediate learners: Basis for developing remedial reading intervention. Industry and Academic Research Review, 1(1), 374–378.
Müller, B., & Brady, S. (2025). Predicting reading comprehension difficulties. Reading and Writing.
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2020). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read (updated findings).
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2021). 21st-century readers: Developing literacy skills in a digital world. OECD Publishing.
Perfetti, C. A., & Stafura, J. Z. (2021). Word knowledge in a theory of reading comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 25(1), 22–37.
Philippine Statistics Authority. (2021). Functional literacy, education and mass media survey (FLEMMS).
Philippine Statistics Authority. (2021). Household access to reading materials and learning environment.
Reardon, S. F., Kalogrides, D., & Shores, K. A. (2021). The geography of racial/ethnic test score gaps. American Journal of Sociology, 124(4), 1164–1221.
Romeo, R. R., Uchida, L., & Christodoulou, J. A. (2022). Socioeconomic status and reading outcomes. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 183–184, 57–70.
Snowling, M. J., Hulme, C., & Nation, K. (2020). Defining and understanding developmental dyslexia. Oxford Review of Education, 46(4), 501–513.
Torppa, M., Georgiou, G. K., Niemi, P., Lerkkanen, M.-K., & Poikkeus, A.-M. (2020). Reading comprehension difficulty and motivation. Educational Psychology, 40(1), 62–81.
UNESCO. (2020). Global education monitoring report 2020: Inclusion and education. UNESCO Publishing.
UNESCO. (2022). Literacy and home learning environment report.
UNICEF Philippines. (2022). State of literacy and learning support at home in the Philippines.
UNICEF. (2021). The state of the world’s children 2021.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (M. Cole et al., Eds.). Harvard University Press.
World Bank. (2022). Education in the Philippines: Instructional time and resource challenges.
World Bank. (2022). The state of global learning poverty: 2022 update.
World Bank. (2022). The state of global learning poverty: Philippines.
Yépez-Moreno, A., Núñez-Naranjo, A., & Torres-Cordero, C. (2025). Phonological awareness and reading skills. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 15(2), 419–430.
Zhang, D., & Koda, K. (2023). Vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 58(2), 245–262.
